Many diseases are caused by more
than one exposure. For example, there is a high risk of developing CHD on the
basis of cigarette smoking, elevated blood pressure and high blood cholesterol.
For there to be a reduction in the incidence of CHD in the population, public
health programs would be directed towards reducing or eliminating these causal
exposures.
This is the aim of epidemiologic research; to identify and assess risk factors as well as planning
and evaluating public health intervention or control measures so as to reduce
the incidences of disease in the population. For this to be possible, the
epidemiologist must be able to predict the impact of the removable of a
particular exposure on the risk of developing a disease.
This then begs the question:
- What amount of the risk of developing a disease is attributable to a particular exposure?
- · By what percent would the risk of developing disease be reduced if the exposure were eliminated?
It is very essential that these
questions are answered and this is done using the attributable risk (AR).
Attributable Risk:
Attributable risk (AR) or risk
difference (RD) is a measure of association that provides information about the
absolute effect of the exposure or the excess risk of disease in those exposed
compared to those non-exposed or the portion of the incidence of the a disease
in the exposed that is due exposure. It is also defined as the difference
between the incidence rates in the exposed and non-exposed groups. It is
calculated as thus:
AR = Ie - Io
Ie – Incidence in the
exposed
Io – Incidence in the
non-exposed
In a cohort study, the
attributable risk is calculated as difference between the cumulative incidences
in the exposed and the non-exposed.
AR = CIe - CIo = a/(a + b) - c/(c + d)
CIe – Cumulative
incidence in the exposed
CIo – Cumulative
incidence in the non-exposed
Table 1: Cohort Study of Smoking and Coronary
Heart Disease among men
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
Yes No Total
Smoking
Yes
140(a) 669(b)
809
No 10(c) 413(d) 423
Total 150
1082 1232
AR = CIe - CIo = a/(a + b) - c/(c + d)
= 140/809 - 10/423
= 0.1731 –
0.0236
= 0.1495
= 1495/104
|
The table above is a hypothetical
data from a cohort study of showing the relationship between coronary heart
disease and smoking. Among the 1232 men who were free from coronary heart
disease, 809 were smokers at the initial survey while 423 were not. At a second
survey, 140 men who smoked had developed coronary heart disease as had 10
non-smokers.
From the data above the excess
occurrence (incidence) of coronary heart disease among smokers attributable to
their smoking is 1495 per 10000.
Thus the attributable risk is
used to quantify the risk of disease in the exposed group that are attributable
to the exposure by removing the risk of disease that would have occurred anyway
due to other causes (the risk of the non-exposed) or alternatively the number
of cases of the disease among the exposed that could be eliminated if the
exposure is eliminated. However it must be noted that the attributable risk is
dependent on the assumption that a cause-effect relationship exist between
exposure and disease.
The attributable risk can also be
expressed as a percentage and this referred to as the attributable rate
percent, attributable proportion or etiologic fraction and is calculated as
thus:
AR% =
AR/Ie* 100
AR% =
(Ie - Io)/Ie * 100
Using the example above
the etiologic fraction is:
AR% = (0.1731 –
0.0236
)/0.1731* 100
AR% = 86.37%
Thus from this example,
if smoking does cause coronary heart disease, 86.37% of the coronary heart
disease in men who smoke can be attributed to their smoking and would be
eliminated if they stopped smoking.
In case – control
studies, the attributable risk cannot be calculated using this formula because
the incidence rates of disease among the exposed and non-exposed are not
available. However the attributable risk percent can be calculated using this
formula:
AR% = (RR - 1)/RR * 100
RR – Relative risk. This is approximated using the odds ratio.
Here the incident rate
among the unexposed is assigned the value 1. The numerator in this equation is
termed the excess relative risk and is the segment of the relative risk among the
exposed which exceeds the risk among the unexposed. Since relative risk
reflects the total risk, thus expressing the group’s excess relative risk as a
percentage of its relative risk yields the attributable risk percent.
Conversely, if the
incidence rate in the total population of interest is known or can be estimated
from other sources and the distribution of exposure among control is assumed to
be representative of the whole population, these parameters can be used to
estimate the incidence rates in exposed and non-exposed groups of case-control
studies. The overall incidence rate of disease in a population (IT)
may be thought of as the weighted average of the incidence rates in various
exposure categories, with the weights related to the proportions of individuals
in each category, IT can be calculated as the incidence rate among
the exposed group (Ie) times the proportion of individuals in the
total population who have the exposure (Pe), plus the incidence rate
among the non-exposed (Io) times the proportion of non-exposed
person (Po). This expressed as:
IT = (Ie)(Pe)
+ (Io)(Po)
Remember,
RR = Ie/Io
Therefore;
Ie = RR * Io
In case-control study
the relative risk is estimated by the odds ratio (OR). Substituting Ie in the formula:
IT = (Io)(OR)(Pe)
+ (Io)(Po)
= (Io)[(OR)(Pe)
+ (Po)]
To determine the
incidence rate in the non-exposed, simply solve for Io.
Io = IT/(OR)(Pe)
+ Po
Once the incidence rate
among the non-exposed is determined, it can then be multiplied by the odds
ratio to provide an estimate of the incidence among the exposed. With these two
incidence rates (Ie and Io), the attributable risk can
then be calculated.
Source: Epidemiology in Medicine by Charles H Hennekens and Julie E Buring
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